Why are the Oceans Salty?

My son asked me yesterday “why are the oceans salty” and I literally didn’t have an answer as to why they are salty and where their salt comes from- so decided to do some research. This is why the oceans are salty

Ocean salt primarily comes from rocks on land

mussels growing in brine pool — Some areas of the ocean are saltier than others. This image shows methane mussels living at the edge of a underwater brine pool in a cavern at a depth of 650 feet in the Gulf of Mexico. The pool of brine in the foreground is nearly four times as salty as seawater and is so dense that a submarine can float on the pool (in fact, this photo was shot from a submarine).

Salt in the ocean comes from rocks on land.

The rain that falls on the land contains some dissolved carbon dioxide from the surrounding air. This causes the rainwater to be slightly acidic due to carbonic acid (which forms from carbon dioxide and water).

As the rain erodes the rock, acids in the rainwater break down the rock. This process creates ions, or electrically charged atomic particles. These ions are carried away in runoff to streams and rivers and, ultimately, to the ocean. Many of the dissolved ions are used by organisms in the ocean and are removed from the water. Others are not used up and are left for long periods of time where their concentrations increase over time.

Two of the most prevalent ions in seawater are chloride and sodium. Together, they make up over 90 percent of all dissolved ions in the ocean. Sodium and Chloride are ‘salty.’

The concentration of salt in seawater (salinity) is about 35 parts per thousand, on average. Stated in another way, about 3.5 percent of the weight of seawater comes from the dissolved salts.

By some estimates, if the salt in the ocean could be removed and spread evenly over the Earth’s land surface it would form a layer more than 500 feet thick, about the height of a 40-story office building.

In the beginning, the primeval seas were probably only slightly salty. But over time, as rain fell to the Earth and ran over the land, breaking up rocks and transporting their minerals to the ocean, the ocean has become saltier.

Rain replenishes freshwater in rivers and streams, so they don’t taste salty. However, the water in the ocean collects all of the salt and minerals from all of the rivers that flow into it.

It is estimated that the rivers and streams flowing from the United States alone discharge 225 million tons of dissolved solids and 513 million tons of suspended sediment annually to the ocean. Throughout the world, rivers carry an estimated four billion tons of dissolved salts to the ocean annually.

About the same tonnage of salt from ocean water probably is deposited as sediment on the ocean bottom and thus, yearly gains may offset yearly losses. In other words, the ocean today probably has a balanced salt input and output (and so the ocean is no longer getting saltier).

https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/whysalty.html

Of butterflies in your stomach

I just finished a book by a friend, which contained his life as a government official in my home state of Kerala, India. It was an interesting book which captured life in India and the functioning of the government in the early 80’s. In one story he talked about how we remember those people who die young more than those who die old and it really got me thinking about my friend Venky. Venky passed away in September of 2012, I still remember the day, with my friend texting me over google chat and I couldn’t believe it. I broke down, crying so hard. It hit me so close for a multitude of reasons.

Venky and I were classmates during our MBA. everyone knew him as Gymbody, and he was just that. His goal was to hit a 2%body fat ratio, while I on the other hand was happy with a 2% muscle mass ratio. Venky managed to get the college to not only build out a gym in the school, but also got the gym ready for all of us. He spent time there and made sure everyone exercised correctly and set up routines. He would’ve been an excellent trainer, but he was an amazing person as well. He was always open to talk and a good listener. He made friends easily and always came with with a smile attached.

We worked on our first startup together at his house, iFarm. It was an ambitious exercise born out of his house in kotturpuram, Chennai. He joined Cognizant around the same time as I did and so we both ended up meeting everyday for lunch. He kept tabs on my food intake and ensured I ate healthy. I learnt so much from him and I was his sounding board for new ideas and he made a big impact with those who worked because he built a great network of folks who would listen to him and be willing to help.

When I got married, he made the trip over for my wedding, promising to come and keeping the promise. During the journey back, he met someone and I remember him telling me “maddy, I can’t explain it man, but I was getting butterflies in my stomach talking to her”. It was nice hearing him talk like this. He actually met someone really nice after that and she made him really happy.

I moved out from Cognizant to setup my own firm www.virtu.in and was constantly talking to him about what to do. He actually invited me to talk at Cognizant about Knowledge Management in startups. I still have that presentation (https://www.slideshare.net/madanmenon/cognizant-presentation-by-virtu-technologies-presentation)

After I sold my company in 2012 and moved in Bangalore. I was in touch with him and met him every time I came to Chennai.

He was healthy and so when I was told he suffered a massive heart attack at 530am and didn’t recover, a part of me died. I won’t he hearing “Hi Maddy”, “Are you sure you want to be eating that” and many more venkyisms, anymore.

It’s been more than 8 years, but I still miss him. My lunch companion for 3 years, my Knowledge Management guru, my health instructor and most importantly my friend.

I’m sure you are making everything better whereever you are and smiling your 10,000W smile!

butterflies in my stomach!

Shipping Containers

The first standard shipping container was invented and patented by Malcolm McLean (USA, 1956). Although he wasn’t an ocean shipper, he owned the largest trucking company in the country at that time. Gradually, he came up with idea of how to make intermodal transportation seamless and efficient. For years, when Malcolm started his trucking company, cargo was loaded and unloaded in odd sized wooden cases, he watched dock loaders unloading freight from trucks and transferring it to ships, and was amazed by the inadequacy of this method. He knew that both trucking carriers and shipping companies would gain from a standardized process of cargo transfer. So, Malcolm decided to make a change – he purchased Pan Atlantic Tanker Company with all its shipping assets. With it, he started experimenting with better ways of loading and unloading trucks. And finally came up with what is now called a shipping container. It’s strong, theft resistant, reliable and easy to transfer. In April 1956, the first container shipped, the Ideal X. It departed from Port Newark and successfully made its route to Houston.

Standard containers made a true revolution in freight transportation and changed international trade in many ways:

Cargo went on a journey sealed and safe, this reduced pilfering and damage on all stages of conveyance;
Containers have reduced labor required for loading and unloading and dramatically changed the character of port cities worldwide. Cranes substitute for man, and ports have changed to accommodate larger ships and loading facilities;
Innovation has reduced the expense of international trade and increased its speed by greatly shortening shipping time.

By the end of the century, container shipping was transporting approximately 90% of the world’s cargo. Containerization shaped the world we live in; it provides an opportunity of fast and safe delivery of millions of goods, each day. Undoubtedly, this invention influenced globalization and world economy.

History

Before containerization, goods were usually handled manually as break bulk cargo. Typically, goods would be loaded onto a vehicle from the factory and taken to a port warehouse where they would be offloaded and stored awaiting the next vessel. When the vessel arrived, they would be moved to the side of the ship along with other cargo to be lowered or carried into the hold and packed by dock workers. The ship might call at several other ports before off-loading a given consignment of cargo. Each port visit would delay the delivery of other cargo. Delivered cargo might then have been offloaded into another warehouse before being picked up and delivered to its destination. Multiple handling and delays made transport costly, time consuming and unreliable.

Containerization has its origins in early coal mining regions in England beginning in the late 18th century. In 1766 James Brindley designed the box boat ‘Starvationer’ with 10 wooden containers, to transport coal from Worsley Delph (quarry) to Manchester by Bridgewater Canal. In 1795, Benjamin Outram opened the Little Eaton Gangway, upon which coal was carried in wagons built at his Butterley Ironwork. The horse-drawn wheeled wagons on the gangway took the form of containers, which, loaded with coal, could be transshipped from canal barges on the Derby Canal, which Outram had also promoted.^[4]

By the 1830s, railroads on several continents were carrying containers that could be transferred to other modes of transport. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway in the United Kingdom was one of these. “Simple rectangular timber boxes, four to a wagon, they were used to convey coal from the Lancashire collieries to Liverpool, where they were transferred to horse-drawn carts by crane.”^[5] Originally used for moving coal on and off barges, “loose boxes” were used to containerize coal from the late 1780s, at places like the Bridgewater Canal. By the 1840s, iron boxes were in use as well as wooden ones. The early 1900s saw the adoption of closed container boxes designed for movement between road and rail.

Twentieth century

On 17 May 1917, Benjamin Franklin Fitch inaugurated exploitation of an experimental installation for transfer of the containers called demountable bodies based on his own design in Cincinnati, Ohio in US. Later in 1919, his system was extended to over 200 containers serving 21 railway stations with 14 freight trucks.

Prior to the Second World War, many European countries independently developed container systems.

In 1919, Stanisław Rodowicz, an engineer, developed the first draft of the container system in Poland. In 1920, he built a prototype of the biaxial wagon. The Polish-Bolshevik War stopped development of the container system in Poland.

The US Post Office contracted with the New York Central Railroad to move mail via containers in May 1921. In 1930, the Chicago & Northwestern Railroad began shipping containers between Chicago and Milwaukee. However, their efforts ended in the spring of 1931 when the Interstate Commerce Commission wouldn’t allow the use of a flat rate for the containers.

In 1931, in USA Benjamin Franklin Fitch designed the two largest and heaviest containers in existence anywhere at the time. One measured 17’6″ by 8’0″ by 8’0″ with a capacity of 30,000 pounds in 890 cubic feet, and a second measured 20’0″ by 8’0″ by 8’0″, with a capacity of 50,000 pounds in 1,000 cubic feet.

In November 1932 in Enola, PA the first container terminal in the world was opened by The Pennsylvania Railroad Company. The Fitch hooking system was used for reloading of the containers.

The development of containerization was created in Europe and the US as a way to revitalize rail companies after the Wall Street Crash of 1929, which had caused economic collapse and reduction in use of all modes of transport.

In 1933 in Europe under the auspices of the International Chamber of Commerce the International Container Bureau (French: Bureau International des Conteneurs, B.I.C.) was established. In June 1933, the B.I.C. decided on obligatory parameters for containers used in international traffic. Containers handled by means of lifting gear, such as cranes, overhead conveyors, etc. for traveling elevators (group I containers), constructed after July 1, 1933. Obligatory Regulations:

Clause 1.—Containers are, as regards form, either of the closed or the open type, and, as regards capacity, either of the heavy or the light type.
Clause 2.—The loading capacity of containers must be such that their total weight (load, plus tare) is: 5 metric tons for containers of the heavy type; 2.5 metric tons for containers of the light type; a tolerance of 5 percent excess on the total weight is allowable under the same conditions as for wagon loads.^[8]

Shipping containers have transformed the logistics industry over the last decades! There are more than 20 million containers around the world, and the world container fleet is growing by 3.9% every year. Not only do containers keep the cargo safe, but they have also increased the cargo capacity extensively.

The ISO has standardized the manufacture of shipping containers to make it suitable for international shipping. The standards include classification, dimensions and ratings. As a result of standardisation, we have 20-feet and 40-feet containers along with other standard varieties.

The three most common raw materials that container manufacturers are steel, flooring and paint.

Steel: In the last couple of decades, mild steel and Corten steel were used. But these days, Corten Steel dominates the industry because of its corrosion-resistant quality. It is also known as the “weathering steel”. When exposed to air and water, it oxidises and prevents corrosion.

Flooring: Earlier, oak was used in flooring. But today, hardwood plywood is used for the flooring. Oak trees take a long time to grow and are therefore not a conventional option. Bamboo grows relatively fast and is a futuristic option.

Paint: The choice of paint is important as it influences the ageing and rusting. The quality of the paint has improved a lot. Three things to take care of here is the thickness of paint, the ZINC rich primer which prevents corrosion and the undercoating of the container.

Before the first types of containers appeared, freight was handled manually as break bulk cargo. Goods were taken through a series of pick-ups and loads from factory to vessel, then from vessel to warehouse, from warehouse to another vessel and so on. This method required a lot of handling and delays, which was costly, time consuming and unreliable. Modern shipping containers were first used for combined rail and horse-drawn transport in Britain at the end of the 18th century. By the 1830s, railroads were carrying containers that were suitable for other transport modes. The U.S. Army used standard-sized small containers during WWII, which helped in faster distribution of supplies.

Interesting facts:

the first TEU container ship was the Japanese de:Hakone Maru from shipowner NYK, who started sailing in 1968 and could carry 752 TEU containers.
With a DWT (deadweight tonnage) of 191,317 metric tons, the OOCL Hong Kong has a cargo capacity of 21,413 TEU, making it the world’s largest container ship. The latter is an important statistic to note, as it is the TEU that determines title honours, not its length or beam

References:

https://www.plslogistics.com/blog/the-history-of-containers/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Containerization
https://container-xchange.com/blog/biggest-container-manufacturers-of-the-world/

History of Coleslaw!

When I order at Popeyes chicken, I always order a large side of coleslaw, giving me the satisfaction of, with the large volume of fried chicken, eating vegetables.

Then I was reading up about history of Coleslaw and found this: Coleslaw (from the Dutch term koolsla meaning ‘cabbage salad’), also known as cole slaw or simply slaw, is a condiment consisting primarily of finely shredded raw cabbage with a salad dressing, commonly either vinaigrette or mayonnaise. Coleslaw prepared with vinaigrette may benefit from the long lifespan granted by pickling.

The term “coleslaw” arose in the 18th century as an anglicisation of the Dutch term “koolsla” (“kool” in Dutch sounds like “cole”) meaning “cabbage salad”. The “cole” part of the word comes from the Latin colis, meaning “cabbage”.[citation needed]

The 1770 recipe book The Sensible Cook: Dutch Foodways in the Old and New World contains a recipe attributed to the author’s Dutch landlady, who mixed thin strips of cabbage with melted butter, vinegar, and oil. The recipe for coleslaw as it is most commonly prepared is fairly young, as mayonnaise was invented during the mid-18th century.

According to The Joy of Cooking (1997), raw cabbage is the only entirely consistent ingredient in coleslaw; the type of cabbage, dressing, and added ingredients vary widely. Vinaigrette, mayonnaise, and sour cream based dressings are all listed; bacon, carrots, bell peppers, pineapple, pickles, onions, and herbs are specifically mentioned as possible added ingredients.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleslaw

History of Christmas Tree

My son asked me about the Christmas tree and I realized – I didn’t know! So here goes – a little bit of history about the Christmas tree: Interesting fact:

In 1659, the General Court of Massachusetts enacted a law making any observance of December 25 (other than a church service) a penal offense; people were fined for hanging decorations. That stern solemnity continued until the 19th century, when the influx of German and Irish immigrants undermined the Puritan legacy.

The history of Christmas trees goes back to the symbolic use of evergreens in ancient Egypt and Rome and continues with the German tradition of candlelit Christmas trees first brought to America in the 1800s. Discover the history of the Christmas tree, from the earliest winter solstice celebrations to Queen Victoria’s decorating habits and the annual lighting of the Rockefeller Center tree in New York City.

How Did Christmas Trees Start?

Long before the advent of Christianity, plants and trees that remained green all year had a special meaning for people in the winter. Just as people today decorate their homes during the festive season with pine, spruce, and fir trees, ancient peoples hung evergreen boughs over their doors and windows. In many countries it was believed that evergreens would keep away witches, ghosts, evil spirits, and illness.

In the Northern hemisphere, the shortest day and longest night of the year falls on December 21 or December 22 and is called the winter solstice. Many ancient people believed that the sun was a god and that winter came every year because the sun god had become sick and weak. They celebrated the solstice because it meant that at last the sun god would begin to get well. Evergreen boughs reminded them of all the green plants that would grow again when the sun god was strong and summer would return.

The ancient Egyptians worshiped a god called Ra, who had the head of a hawk and wore the sun as a blazing disk in his crown. At the solstice, when Ra began to recover from his illness, the Egyptians filled their homes with green palm rushes, which symbolized for them the triumph of life over death.

Early Romans marked the solstice with a feast called Saturnalia in honor of Saturn, the god of agriculture. The Romans knew that the solstice meant that soon, farms and orchards would be green and fruitful. To mark the occasion, they decorated their homes and temples with evergreen boughs.

In Northern Europe the mysterious Druids, the priests of the ancient Celts, also decorated their temples with evergreen boughs as a symbol of everlasting life. The fierce Vikings in Scandinavia thought that evergreens were the special plant of the sun god, Balder.

Christmas Trees From Germany

Germany is credited with starting the Christmas tree tradition as we now know it in the 16th century when devout Christians brought decorated trees into their homes. Some built Christmas pyramids of wood and decorated them with evergreens and candles if wood was scarce. It is a widely held belief that Martin Luther, the 16th-century Protestant reformer, first added lighted candles to a tree. Walking toward his home one winter evening, composing a sermon, he was awed by the brilliance of stars twinkling amidst evergreens. To recapture the scene for his family, he erected a tree in the main room and wired its branches with lighted candles.

Who Brought Christmas Trees to America?

Most 19th-century Americans found Christmas trees an oddity. The first record of one being on display was in the 1830s by the German settlers of Pennsylvania, although trees had been a tradition in many German homes much earlier. The Pennsylvania German settlements had community trees as early as 1747. But, as late as the 1840s Christmas trees were seen as pagan symbols and not accepted by most Americans.

It is not surprising that, like many other festive Christmas customs, the tree was adopted so late in America. To the New England Puritans, Christmas was sacred. The pilgrims’s second governor, William Bradford, wrote that he tried hard to stamp out “pagan mockery” of the observance, penalizing any frivolity. The influential Oliver Cromwell preached against “the heathen traditions” of Christmas carols, decorated trees, and any joyful expression that desecrated “that sacred event.” In 1659, the General Court of Massachusetts enacted a law making any observance of December 25 (other than a church service) a penal offense; people were fined for hanging decorations. That stern solemnity continued until the 19th century, when the influx of German and Irish immigrants undermined the Puritan legacy.

Queen Victoria's Christmas Tree — An illustration from a December 1848 edition of the Illustrated London News shows Queen Victoria and her family surrounding a Christmas tree.

Bettmann Archive/Getty Images

In 1846, the popular royals, Queen Victoria and her German Prince, Albert, were sketched in the Illustrated London News standing with their children around a Christmas tree. Unlike the previous royal family, Victoria was very popular with her subjects, and what was done at court immediately became fashionable—not only in Britain, but with fashion-conscious East Coast American Society. The Christmas tree had arrived.

By the 1890s Christmas ornaments were arriving from Germany and Christmas tree popularity was on the rise around the U.S. It was noted that Europeans used small trees about four feet in height, while Americans liked their Christmas trees to reach from floor to ceiling.

Christmas Trees Around the World

Christmas Trees in Canada

German settlers migrated to Canada from the United States in the 1700s. They brought with them many of the things associated with Christmas we cherish today—Advent calendars, gingerbread houses, cookies—and Christmas trees. When Queen Victoria’s German husband, Prince Albert, put up a Christmas tree at Windsor Castle in 1848, the Christmas tree became a tradition throughout England, the United States, and Canada.

Christmas Trees in Mexico

In most Mexican homes the principal holiday adornment is el Nacimiento (Nativity scene). However, a decorated Christmas tree may be incorporated in the Nacimiento or set up elsewhere in the home. As purchase of a natural pine represents a luxury commodity to most Mexican families, the typical arbolito (little tree) is often an artificial one, a bare branch cut from a copal tree (Bursera microphylla) or some type of shrub collected from the countryside.

Christmas Trees in Great Britain

The Norway spruce is the traditional species used to decorate homes in Britain. The Norway spruce was a native species in the British Isles before the last Ice Age, and was reintroduced here before the 1500s.

Christmas Trees in Greenland

Christmas trees are imported, as no trees live this far north. They are decorated with candles and bright ornaments.

Christmas Trees in Guatemala

The Christmas tree has joined the “Nacimiento” (Nativity scene) as a popular ornament because of the large German population in Guatemala. Gifts are left under the tree on Christmas morning for the children. Parents and adults do not exchange gifts until New Year’s Day.

Christmas Trees in Brazil
Although Christmas falls during the summer in Brazil, sometimes pine trees are decorated with little pieces of cotton that represent falling snow.

Christmas Trees in Ireland
Christmas trees are bought anytime in December and decorated with colored lights, tinsel, and baubles. Some people favor the angel on top of the tree, others the star. The house is decorated with garlands, candles, holly, and ivy. Wreaths and mistletoe are hung on the door.

Christmas Trees in Sweden
Most people buy Christmas trees well before Christmas Eve, but it’s not common to take the tree inside and decorate it until just a few days before. Evergreen trees are decorated with stars, sunbursts, and snowflakes made from straw. Other decorations include colorful wooden animals and straw centerpieces.

Christmas Trees in Norway
Nowadays Norwegians often take a trip to the woods to select a Christmas tree, a trip that their grandfathers probably did not make. The Christmas tree was not introduced into Norway from Germany until the latter half of the 19th century; to the country districts it came even later. When Christmas Eve arrives, there is the decorating of the tree, usually done by the parents behind the closed doors of the living room, while the children wait with excitement outside. A Norwegian ritual known as “circling the Christmas tree” follows, where everyone joins hands to form a ring around the tree and then walk around it singing carols. Afterwards, gifts are distributed.

Christmas Trees in Ukraine
Celebrated on December 25th by Catholics and on January 7th by Orthodox Christians, Christmas is the most popular holiday in the Ukraine. During the Christmas season, which also includes New Year’s Day, people decorate fir trees and have parties.

Christmas Trees in Spain
A popular Christmas custom is Catalonia, a lucky strike game. A tree trunk is filled with goodies and children hit at the trunk trying to knock out the hazel nuts, almonds, toffee, and other treats.

Christmas Trees in Italy
In Italy, the presepio (manger or crib) represents in miniature the Holy Family in the stable and is the center of Christmas for families. Guests kneel before it and musicians sing before it. The presepio figures are usually hand-carved and very detailed in features and dress. The scene is often set out in the shape of a triangle. It provides the base of a pyramid-like structure called the ceppo. This is a wooden frame arranged to make a pyramid several feet high. Several tiers of thin shelves are supported by this frame. It is entirely decorated with colored paper, gilt pine cones, and miniature colored pennants. Small candles are fastened to the tapering sides. A star or small doll is hung at the apex of the triangular sides. The shelves above the manger scene have small gifts of fruit, candy, and presents. The ceppo is in the old Tree of Light tradition which became the Christmas tree in other countries. Some houses even have a ceppo for each child in the family.

Christmas Trees in Germany
Many Christmas traditions practiced around the world today started in Germany.

It has long been thought that Martin Luther began the tradition of bringing a fir tree into the home. According to one legend, late one evening, Martin Luther was walking home through the woods and noticed how beautifully the stars shone through the trees. He wanted to share the beauty with his wife, so he cut down a fir tree and took it home. Once inside, he placed small, lighted candles on the branches and said that it would be a symbol of the beautiful Christmas sky. The Christmas tree was born.

Another legend says that in the early 16th century, people in Germany combined two customs that had been practiced in different countries around the globe. The Paradise tree (a fir tree decorated with apples) represented the Tree of Knowledge in the Garden of Eden. The Christmas Light, a small, pyramid-like frame, usually decorated with glass balls, tinsel and a candle on top, was a symbol of the birth of Christ as the Light of the World. Changing the tree’s apples to tinsel balls and cookies and combining this new tree with the light placed on top, the Germans created the tree that many of us know today.

Modern Tannenbaum (Christmas trees) are traditionally decorated in secret with lights, tinsel and ornaments by parents and then lit and revealed on Christmas Eve with cookies, nuts and gifts under its branches.

Christmas Trees in South Africa
Christmas is a summer holiday in South Africa. Although Christmas trees are not common, windows are often draped with sparkling cotton wool and tinsel.

Christmas Trees in Saudi Arabia
Christian Americans, Europeans, Indians, Filipinos, and others living here have to celebrate Christmas privately in their homes. Christmas lights are generally not tolerated. Most families place their Christmas trees somewhere inconspicuous.

Christmas Trees in Philippines
Fresh pine trees are too expensive for many Filipinos, so handmade trees in an array of colors and sizes are often used. Star lanterns, or parol, appear everywhere in December. They are made from bamboo sticks, covered with brightly colored rice paper or cellophane, and usually feature a tassel on each point. There is usually one in every window, each representing the Star of Bethlehem.

Christmas Trees in China
Of the small percentage of Chinese who do celebrate Christmas, most erect artificial trees decorated with spangles and paper chains, flowers, and lanterns. Christmas trees are called “trees of light.”

Christmas Trees in Japan
For most of the Japanese who celebrate Christmas, it’s purely a secular holiday devoted to the love of their children. Christmas trees are decorated with small toys, dolls, paper ornaments, gold paper fans and lanterns, and wind chimes. Miniature candles are also put among the tree branches. One of the most popular ornaments is the origami swan. Japanese children have exchanged thousands of folded paper “birds of peace” with young people all over the world as a pledge that war must not happen again.

Christmas Tree Trivia

Christmas trees have been sold commercially in the United States since about 1850.

In 1979, the National Christmas Tree was not lighted except for the top ornament. This was done in honor of the American hostages in Iran.

Between 1887-1933 a fishing schooner called the Christmas Ship would tie up at the Clark Street bridge and sell spruce trees from Michigan to Chicagoans.

The tallest living Christmas tree is believed to be the 122-foot, 91-year-old Douglas fir in the town of Woodinville, Washington.

The Rockefeller Center Christmas tree tradition began in 1933. Franklin Pierce, the 14th president, brought the Christmas tree tradition to the White House.

In 1923, President Calvin Coolidge started the National Christmas Tree Lighting Ceremony now held every year on the White House lawn.

Since 1966, the National Christmas Tree Association has given a Christmas tree to the President and first family.

Most Christmas trees are cut weeks before they get to a retail outlet.

In 1912, the first community Christmas tree in the United States was erected in New York City.

Christmas trees generally take six to eight years to mature.

Christmas trees are grown in all 50 states including Hawaii and Alaska.

100,000 people are employed in the Christmas tree industry.

98 percent of all Christmas trees are grown on farms.

More than 1,000,000 acres of land have been planted with Christmas trees.

77 million Christmas trees are planted each year.

On average, over 2,000 Christmas trees are planted per acre.

You should never burn your Christmas tree in the fireplace. It can contribute to creosote buildup.

Other types of trees such as cherry and hawthorns were used as Christmas trees in the past.

Thomas Edison’s assistants came up with the idea of electric lights for Christmas trees.

In 1963, the National Christmas Tree was not lit until December 22nd because of a national 30-day period of mourning following the assassination of President Kennedy.

Teddy Roosevelt banned the Christmas tree from the White House for environmental reasons.

In the first week, a tree in your home will consume as much as a quart of water per day.

Tinsel was once banned by the government. Tinsel contained lead at one time. Now it’s made of plastic.

In 1984, the National Christmas Tree was lit on December 13th with temperatures in the 70s, making it one of the warmest tree lightings in history.

34 to 36 million Christmas trees are produced each year and 95 percent are shipped or sold directly from Christmas tree farms.

California, Oregon, Michigan, Washington, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania and North Carolina are the top Christmas tree producing states.

The best-selling trees are Scotch Pine, Douglas Fir, Fraser Fir, Balsam Fir and White Pine.

Worlds longest Flight

No- it is not from Sydney to London at 18hours.

It is 64 Days, 22 Hrs, 19mins and 5 seconds.

Image result for hacienda 172 That is over two months in a Cessna 172, flying twenty four hours a day, without even landing for fuel. That’s exactly what two pilots did back in 1958 in the California and Nevada desert. Bob Timm and John Cook set a world endurance record, remaining airborne for just under 65 days. It was a publicity flight, sponsored by the Hacienda Hotel in Las Vegas.

Image result for hacienda 172

A stock Cessna 172 was purchased, then modified for the flight. Although the Continental engine was basically untouched, two oil systems, filters, and a 95 gallon fuel tank were installed. The oil could be changed and the plane refueled without shutting down the engine. Except for the pilot seat, the interior was gutted, then re-done to include a mattress and a sink.

Image result for hacienda 172

The right side door was collapsible, providing access to the exterior and enabling the co-pilot to operate a winch for bringing supplies aboard from below. Re-fueling and re-supplying the airplane were the tricky parts. Twice daily, the plane was flown just above a speeding truck from which a hose was hoisted up to pump 95 gallons of avgas into the belly tank. Food, water and Other supplies were lifted up from the truck as well. Image result for hacienda 172

The Cessna 172 was sold to a Canadian pilot, but was eventually brought back to Nevada, where it now hangs from the ceiling at McCarran International Airport.

The entire story of this flight, and the record which stands to this day, is available to read at the Howard W. Cannon Aviation Museum at McCarran Airport in Las Vegas.

Image result for hacienda 172

My favourite Youtube channel

https://www.aopa.org/news-and-media/all-news/2008/march/01/endurance-test-circa-1958

Hamsterdam

One of my top TV serials is HBO’s The Wire. It fascinated me on several levels in terms of the story as well as the portrayal of Baltimore. In season 3 episode 4 the concept of Hamsterdam was introduced – where they section a “Safe haven” for drug addicts – the police does not intervene.

Recently the city of Philadelphia passed a “Safe haven” law which allowed opiod addicts access to clinics where they can shoot up. Referred to as a supervised injection site, they allow for the addict access to clean syringes and other items needed to get high- all while having medical staff on standby incase they overdose.

https://www.foxnews.com/us/philadelphia-residents-reacts-after-judge-rules-supervised-injection-site-does-not-violate-federal-law

Take a minute for that to sink in.

I have been back and forth on this issue- on one hand I argue that it’s better to be in the open and get help if things go south, quickly instead of getting treated for other issues such as infected needles etc. This also gives addicts access to help if they need it by giving them counselling and support where they congregate – instead of them having to take the effort to go to a de-addiction center.

On the other hand, it’s giving addicts a greenlight to say- hey- come here and get high- its like a BYOD party.

While I am hoping something like this will help ease the current crisis, by giving addicts avenues to seek help and not overdose or get infected from non-sterile conditions.

To end, “The ultimate goal of Safehouse’s proposed operation is to reduce drug use, not facilitate it,” the judge wrote.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamsterdam

The History of the Toilet

Yes, the topic is rather shocking, but it was fascinating to read the evolution of the toilet. This lead to the development of plumbing technologies. The smithsonian has a very interesting article about this – where they have gone into details about the evolution of the “throne room” from medieval times to the present. Toilets were seats actually meant for kings. How very interesting.

King Minos of Crete had the first flushing water closet recorded in history and that was over 2,800 years ago.
A toilet was discovered in the tomb of a Chinese king of the Western Han Dynasty that dates back to somewhere between 206 BC to 24 AD.
The ancient Romans had a system of sewers. They built simple outhouses or latrines directly over the running waters of the sewers that poured into the Tiber River.
Chamber pots were used during the middle ages. A chamber pot is a special metal or ceramic bowl that you used and then tossed the contents out (often out the window).
In 1596, a flush toilet was invented and built for Queen Elizabeth I by her Godson, Sir John Harrington.
The first patent for the flushing toilet was issued to Alexander Cummings in 1775.
During the 1800s, people would come to realize that poor sanitary conditions caused diseases. Thus having toilets and sewer systems that could control human waste became a priority to lawmakers, medical experts, inventors as well as the general public.

In 1829, the Tremont Hotel of Boston became the first hotel to have indoor plumbing with eight water closets built by Isaiah Rogers. Until 1840, indoor plumbing could be found only in the homes of the rich and the better hotels.
Beginning in 1910, toilet designs started moving away from the elevated water tank system and more toward a modern toilet with a close tank and bowl setup.

In a catalog assembled for the 2014 Venice Biennale to accompany an exhibition on architectural elements, the bathroom is referred to as “the architectural space in which bodies are replenished, inspected, and cultivated, and where one is left alone for private reflection – to develop and affirm identity.” I think that means it’s where you watch yourself crying in the mirror. As for the toilet specifically, Biennale curator Rem Koolhaas and his researchers, consider it to be the “ultimate” architectural element, “the fundamental zone of interaction–on the most intimate level–between humans and architecture.” So the next time that burrito doesn’t sit right or you had one too many gin and tonics, remember that you’re experiencing a corporeal union with the mother of all arts. Potty humor aside, the privatization and proliferation of the bathroom has really driven new developments in cleanliness and safety and has shaped our buildings.

The flush toilet was invented in 1596 but didn’t become widespread until 1851. Before that, the “toilet” was a motley collection of communal outhouses, chamber pots and holes in the ground. During the 11th-century castle-building boom, chamber pots were supplemented with toilets that were, for the first time, actually integrated into the architecture. These early bathrooms, known as “garderobes” were little more than continuous niches that ran vertically down to the ground, but they soon evolved into small rooms that protruded from castle walls as distinct bottomless bays (such a toilet was the setting for a pivotal scene in the season finale of “Game of Thrones”). “Garderrobe” is both a euphemism for a closet as well as a quite literal appellation, as historian Dan Snow notes: “The name garderobe – which translates as guarding one’s robes – is thought to come from hanging your clothes in the toilet shaft, as the ammonia from the urine would kill the fleas.”

Though it might be named for a closet, the garderrobe actually had a strong resemblance to an aspect of a castle’s defenses. And it works in the same basic way: gravity. And while the garderobe was actually a weak spot in a castle’s defenses, woe be the unassuming invader scaling a castle wall beneath one. Several designs emerged to solve the problem of vertical waste disposal – some spiral up towers, for example, while some were entire towers; some dropped waste into cesspools, moats, and some just dropped it onto the ground below. Not all medieval compounds were okay with merely dumping excrement onto the ground like so much hot oil. Christchurch monastery (1167) has an elaborate sewage system that separates running water, rain drainage, and waste, which can be seen marked in red seen in the below drawing, which has to be the most beautiful plumbing diagram I have ever seen:

Today, the toilet has been upgraded from architectural polyp to a central design element. A long time ago, when I had dreams of becoming an architect, I was designing a house for a client who wanted to see the television from the toilet and tub but did not want a television in the bathroom. The entire master suite, and thus a large percentage of the building’s second floor, was designed around seeing the views from the bathroom. And that was the second residence in my short career that began with the bathroom. More commonly though, toilets shape the spaces of our skyscrapers.

Because we can’t simply drop our waste 800 feet off the side of a skyscraper onto a busy metropolitan sidewalk, and because efficient plumbing depends on stacking fixtures that share a common “wet wall,” toilets (and elevators, of course) are the only elements drawn in the plans for high-rise buildings, whose repeating floor slabs are built out later according to a tenant’s needs. Once relegated to the periphery, the toilet is a now an oasis at the center of our busylives, a place where, as Koolhaas wrote, “one is left alone for private reflection – to develop and affirm identity.” To paraphrase Winston Churchill, we shaped our toilets, then our toilet shapes us.

Plumbing comes from the Latin word for lead, which is plumbum. Plumbing by definition is a utility that we use in our buildings consisting of the pipes and fixtures for the distribution of water or gas and for the disposal of sewage. The word sewer comes from the French word essouier, meaning “to drain.”

But how did plumbing systems come together? Surely it didn’t happen at once, right? Of course not. Let’s go over the main fixtures of modern day plumbing systems. These include toilets, bathtubs and showers and water fountains.

Let There Be Water Fountains

The modern drinking fountain was invented and then manufactured in the early 1900s by two men and the respective company each man founded. Halsey Willard Taylor and the Halsey Taylor Company along with Luther Haws and the Haws Sanitary Drinking Faucet Co were the two companies that changed how water was served in public places.

Taylor’s interest in developing a fountain for drinking water began when his father died of typhoid fever caused by contaminated public drinking water. His father’s death was traumatic and motivated him to invent a water fountain to provide safer drinking water.

Meanwhile, Haws was a part-time plumber, sheet metal contractor and the sanitary inspector for the city of Berkeley in California. While inspecting a public school, Haws saw children drinking water out of a common tin cup that was tied to the faucet. Because of this he feared that there was a health hazard in the making because of the way the public was sharing their water supply.

Haws invented the first faucet designed for drinking. He used spare plumbing parts, such as taking the ball from a brass bedstead and a self-closing rabbit ear valve. The Berkeley school department installed the first model drinking faucets.

https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-plumbing-1992310

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/turrets-toilets-partial-history-throne-room-180951788/

History of Banking

The history of banking began with the first prototype banks which were the merchants of the world, who made grain loans to farmers and traders who carried goods between cities. This was around 2000 BC in Assyria, India and Sumeria. Later, in ancient Greece and during the Roman Empire, lenders based in temples made loans, while accepting deposits and performing the change of money. Archaeology from this period in ancient China and India also shows evidence of money lending.

Many histories position the crucial historical development of a banking system to medieval and Renaissance Italy and particularly the affluent cities of Florence, Venice and Genoa. The Bardi and Peruzzi Families dominated banking in 14th century Florence, establishing branches in many other parts of Europe.^[1] The most famous Italian bank was the Medici bank, established by Giovanni Medici in 1397.^[2] The oldest bank still in existence is Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena, headquartered in Siena, Italy, which has been operating continuously since 1472.^[3]

Development of banking spread from northern Italy throughout the Holy Roman Empire, and in the 15th and 16th century to northern Europe. This was followed by a number of important innovations that took place in Amsterdam during the Dutch Republic in the 17th century, and in London since the 18th century. During the 20th century, developments in telecommunications and computing caused major changes to banks’ operations and let banks dramatically increase in size and geographic spread. The financial crisis of 2007–2008 caused many bank failures, including some of the world’s largest banks, and provoked much debate about bank regulation.

Earliest forms of banking

Asia

Mesopotamia and Persia

Banking as an archaic activity (or quasi-banking^[28]^[29]) is thought to have begun at various times, during a period as early as the latter part of the 4th millennium BCE,^[30] to within the 4th to 3rd millennia BCE^[31]^[32]

Among many other things, the Code of Hammurabi recorded interest-bearing loans.

Prior to the reign of Sargon I of Akkad (2335–2280 BCE^[33]) the occurrence of trade was limited to the internal boundaries of each city-state of Babylon and the temple located at the centre of economic activity there-in; trade at the time for citizens external to the city was forbidden.^[24]^[34]^[35]

In Babylonia of 2000 BCE, people depositing gold were required to pay amounts as much as one sixtieth of the total deposited. Both the palaces and temple are known to have provided lending and issuing from the wealth they held—the palaces to a lesser extent. Such loans typically involved issuing seed-grain, with re-payment from the harvest. These basic social agreements were documented in clay tablets, with an agreement on interest accrual. The habit of depositing and storing of wealth in temples continued at least until 209 BCE, as evidenced by Antioch having ransacked or pillaged the temple of Aine in Ecbatana (Media) of gold and silver.^[36]^[37]^[38]^[39]^[40]^[41]^[42]^[43]

Cuneiform records of the house of Egibi of Babylonia describe the family’s financial activities dated as having occurred sometime after 1000 BC and ending sometime during the reign of Darius I, show according to one source a “lending house” (Silver 2002), a family engaging in “professional banking…” (Dandamaev et al 2004) and economic activities similar to a degree to modern deposit banking, although another states the family’s activities better described as entrepreneurship rather than banking (Wunsch 2007). The provision of credit is apparently also something the Murashu family participated in (Moshenskyi 2008).

Asia Minor

From the fourth millennia previously agricultural settlements began administrative activities

The temple of Artemis at Ephesus was the largest depository of Asia. A pot-hoard dated to 600 BCE was found in excavations by The British Museum during the year after 1904. During the time at the cessation of the first Mithridatic war the entire debt record at the time being held, was annulled by the council. Mark Anthony is recorded to have stolen from the deposits on an occasion. The temple served as a depository for Aristotle, Caesar, Dio Chrysostomus, Plautus, Plutarch, Strabo and Xenophon.^[58]^[59]^[60]^[61]^[62]^[63]^[64]

The temple to Apollo in Didyma was constructed sometime in the 6th century. A large sum of gold was deposited within the treasury at the time by king Croesus.^[65]^[66]

India

In ancient India there are evidences of loans from the Vedic period (beginning 1750 BC). Later during the Maurya dynasty (321 to 185 BC), an instrument called adesha was in use, which was an order on a banker desiring him to pay the money of the note to a third person, which corresponds to the definition of a bill of exchange as we understand it today. During the Buddhist period, there was considerable use of these instruments. Merchants in large towns gave letters of credit to one another.^[67]^[68]^[69]

China

In ancient China, starting in the Qin Dynasty (221 to 206 BC), Chinese currency developed with the introduction of standardized coins that allowed easier trade across China, and led to development of letters of credit. These letters were issued by merchants who acted in ways that today we would understand as banks.^[70]

Egypt

According to Muir (2009) there were two types of banks operating within Egypt: royal and private.^[71] Documents made to show the banking of taxes were known as peptoken-records.^[72]

Greece

Trapezitica is the first source documenting banking (de Soto – p. 41). The speeches of Demosthenes contain numerous references to the issuing of credit (Millett p. 5). Xenophon is credited to have made the first suggestion of the creation of an organisation known in the modern definition as a joint-stock bank in On Revenues written circa 353 BCE^[8]^[73]^[74]^[75]

The city-states of Greece after the Persian Wars produced a government and culture sufficiently organized for the birth of a private citizenship and therefore an embryonic capitalist society, allowing for the separation of wealth from exclusive state ownership to the possibility of ownership by the individual

According to one source (Dandamaev et al), trapezites were the first to trade using money, during the 5th century BCE, as opposed to earlier trade which occurred using forms of pre-money

Specific locus of funds[edit]

The earliest forms of storage utilized were the rudimentary money-boxes (θΗΣΑΥΡΌΣ^[79]) which were made similar in form to the construction of a bee-hive, and were found for example in the Mycenae tombs of 1550–1500 BC.^[80]^[81]^[82]^[83]^[84]^[85]^[86]

Private and civic entities within ancient Grecian society, especially Greek temples, performed financial transactions. (Gilbart p. 3) The temples were the places where treasure was deposited for safe-keeping. The three temples thought the most important were the temple to Artemis in Ephesus, and temple of Hera within Samos, and within Delphi, the temple to Apollo. These consisted of deposits, currency exchange, validation of coinage, and loans.^[8]^[8]^[74]^[87]^[88]

The first treasury to the Apollonian temple was built before the end of the 7th century BC. A treasury of the temple was constructed by the city of Siphnos during the 6th century.^[89]^[90]^[91]

Before the destruction by Persians during the 480 invasion, the Athenian Acropolis temple dedicated to Athena stored money; Pericles rebuilt a depository afterward contained within the Parthenon.^[92]

During the reign of the Ptolemies, state depositories replaced temples as the location of security-deposits. Records exist to show this having occurred by the end of the reign of Ptolemy I (305–284).^[93]^[94]^[95]^[96]

As the need for new buildings to house operations increased, construction of these places within the cities began around the courtyards of the agora (markets).^[97]

Geographical locus of banking activities[edit]

Athens received the Delian leagues‘ treasury during 454.^[98]

During the late 3rd and 2nd century BC, the Aegean island of Delos, became a prominent banking center.^[99] During the 2nd century, there were for certain three banks and one temple depository within the city.^[100]

Thirty five Hellenistic cities included private banks during the 2nd century (Roberts – p. 130).^[100]

Of the settlements of the Greco-Roman world of the 1st century AD, three were of pronounced wealth and centres of banking, Athens, Corinth and Patras.^[101]^[102]^[103]^[104]^[105]

Loans

Many loans are recorded in writings from the classical age, although a very small proportion were provided by banks. Provision of these were likely an occurrence of Athens, with loans known to have been provided at some time at an annual interest of 12%. Within the boundaries of Athens, bankers loans are recorded as having been issued on eleven occasions altogether (Bogaert 1968).

Banks sometimes made loans available confidentially, which is, they provided funds without being publicly and openly known to have done so, in addition also, to act as intermediaries for persons to loan their own monies without this being known to others. This intermediation per se was known as dia tes trapazēs

A loan was made by a Temple of Athens to the state during 433–427 BCE

The Cup Noodle – カップヌードル Kappu Nūdoru

Instant noodles were invented in 1958 by Momofuku Ando, the Taiwanese-born founder of the Japanese food company Nissin. He used Chicken Ramen as the first instant ramen noodles.

In 1970, Nissin formed the subsidiary Nissin Foods (USA) Co. Inc, to sell instant noodles in the United States. Nissin recognized that the bowls traditionally used to package instant noodles in Asia were not common in the U.S, so they used the paper cup designed by Ron R. Matteson. In 1971, they introduced instant ramen packaged in a foam cup. The three original Cup O’ Noodles flavors in the US were beef, chicken and shrimp. Pork flavor was added in 1976. In 1978, Nissin Foods offered more new varieties of Top Ramen and Cup O’ Noodles. The product was known as Cup O’ Noodles in the United States until 1993.^[1] In 1998, Cup Noodles Hot Sauce Varieties introduced (Beef, Chicken, Pork and Shrimp).

Instant ramen noodles are made with wheat flour, water, salt, and kansui, an alkaline water that adds elasticity to the noodles. First, the ingredients are kneaded together to make a dough. Next, this dough is rolled out and cut into thin noodles. The noodles are then steamed and are finally packaged after dehydration. Advanced technologies are used in every step of the manufacturing process. Dehydration is especially important for the preservability of instant ramen, so noodle makers have experimented with many methods.

Momofuku Ando, the founder of Nissin, succeeded in making the first instant ramen after much trial and error. Tempura, a traditional Japanese deep-fried food, gave him the idea of removing moisture from the noodles by frying them in oil at a high temperature. This method makes it possible to dehydrate the noodles almost completely. Moreover, it has the added advantage of leaving countless minuscule holes on the surface, making it easier for the noodles to rehydrate when steeped in hot water.

Recently, a new method of dehydrating ramen noodles has emerged: “blow-drying” them at a high temperature instead of frying. This was actually tried in the early days of instant ramen, but it was unpopular because the noodles did not loosen in the soup easily and because they became rubbery. In the late 1990s, thanks to refinements in blow-drying technology and in the combination of ingredients, a dehydration method was developed in which the noodles are exposed to hot air at 80 degrees Celsius (176 degrees Fahrenheit) for 30 to 60 minutes. Known as “nonfried noodles,” ramen products made in this way have become popular for being low in calories.

One important merit of instant foods is that they can be stored for long periods. To ensure preservability, the water content cannot exceed 12%. Fried instant noodles have a water content of between 3% and 6%, while nonfried noodles measure around 10%. Compared to fried noodles, which have tiny holes, nonfried noodles take about two extra minutes to rehydrate. This problem should eventually be solved, though, with the development of even newer technology.

Dehydration is only one aspect of instant ramen production, but this overview has been enough to show us how hard ramen makers have been working to develop various methods of production in pursuit of an ever-better eating experience.

https://web-japan.org/kidsweb/hitech/ramen/ramen02.html